Saturday, June 14, 2008
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Bill Gates
Bill Gates, born in 1955, American business executive, who serves as chairman of Microsoft Corporation, the leading computer software company in the United States. Gates cofounded Microsoft in 1975 with high school friend Paul Allen. The company’s success made Gates one of the most influential figures in the computer industry and, eventually, one of the richest people in the world.
Born in Seattle, Washington, William Henry Gates III attended public school through the sixth grade. In the seventh grade he entered Seattle’s exclusive Lakeside School, where he met Allen. Gates was first introduced to computers and programming languages in 1968, when he was in the eighth grade. That year Lakeside bought a teletype machine that connected to a mainframe computer over phone lines. At the time, the school was one of the few that provided students with access to a computer.
Soon afterward, Gates, Allen, and other students convinced a local computer company to give them free access to its PDP-10, a new minicomputer made by Digital Equipment Corporation. In exchange for the computer time, the students tried to find flaws in the system. Gates spent much of his free time on the PDP-10 learning programming languages such as BASIC, Fortran, and LISP. In 1972 Gates and Allen founded Traf-O-Data, a company that designed and built computerized car-counting machines for traffic analysis. The project introduced them to the programmable 8008 microprocessor from Intel Corporation.
While attending Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1975, Gates teamed with Allen to develop a version of the BASIC programming language for the Altair 8800, the first personal computer. They licensed the software to the manufacturer of the Altair, Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS), and formed Microsoft (originally Micro-soft) to develop versions of BASIC for other computer companies. Gates decided to drop out of Harvard in his junior year to devote his time to Microsoft. In 1980 Microsoft closed a pivotal deal with International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) to provide the operating system for the IBM PC personal computer. As part of the deal, Microsoft retained the right to license the operating system to other companies.
The success of the IBM PC made the operating system, MS-DOS, an industry standard. Microsoft’s revenues skyrocketed as other computer makers licensed MS-DOS and demand for personal computers surged. In 1986 Microsoft offered its stock to the public; by 1987 rapid appreciation of the stock had made Gates, 31, the youngest ever self-made billionaire. In the 1990s, as Microsoft’s Windows operating system and Office application software achieved worldwide market dominance, Gates amassed a fortune worth tens of billions of dollars. Alongside his successes, however, Gates was accused of using his company’s power to stifle competition. In 2000 a federal judge found Microsoft guilty of violating antitrust laws and ordered it split into two companies. An appeals court overturned the breakup order in 2001 but upheld the judge's ruling that Microsoft had abused its power to protect its Windows monopoly. In November 2001 Microsoft reached a settlement with the U.S. Justice Department and nine states, and a year later, the settlement was upheld by a federal district court judge. (For more information on the history of Microsoft, see Microsoft Corporation.)
Gates has made personal investments in other high-technology companies. He sits on the board of one biotechnology company and has invested in a number of others. In 1989 he founded Corbis Corporation, which now owns the largest collection of digital images in the world.
In the late 1990s Gates became more involved in philanthropy. With his wife he established the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, which, ranked by assets, quickly became the largest foundation in the world. Gates has also authored two books: The Road Ahead (1995; revised, 1996), which details his vision of technology’s role in society, and Business @ the Speed of Thought (1999), which discusses the role technology can play in running a business.
In 1998 Gates appointed an executive vice president of Microsoft, Steve Ballmer, to the position of president, but Gates continued to serve as Microsoft’s chairman and chief executive officer (CEO). In 2000 Gates transferred the title of CEO to Ballmer. While remaining chairman, Gates also took on the title of chief software architect to focus on the development of new products and technologies.
In June 2006 Gates announced that he would begin transitioning from a full-time role at Microsoft to a full-time role at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. He relinquished his title of chief software architect to Ray Ozzie, a veteran leader in computer technology and creator of Lotus Notes. Gates planned to remain chairman of Microsoft and to continue as its largest shareholder, but he said that by July 2008 he would have only a part-time role at the company he cofounded.
Taken from :
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Born in Seattle, Washington, William Henry Gates III attended public school through the sixth grade. In the seventh grade he entered Seattle’s exclusive Lakeside School, where he met Allen. Gates was first introduced to computers and programming languages in 1968, when he was in the eighth grade. That year Lakeside bought a teletype machine that connected to a mainframe computer over phone lines. At the time, the school was one of the few that provided students with access to a computer.
Soon afterward, Gates, Allen, and other students convinced a local computer company to give them free access to its PDP-10, a new minicomputer made by Digital Equipment Corporation. In exchange for the computer time, the students tried to find flaws in the system. Gates spent much of his free time on the PDP-10 learning programming languages such as BASIC, Fortran, and LISP. In 1972 Gates and Allen founded Traf-O-Data, a company that designed and built computerized car-counting machines for traffic analysis. The project introduced them to the programmable 8008 microprocessor from Intel Corporation.
While attending Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1975, Gates teamed with Allen to develop a version of the BASIC programming language for the Altair 8800, the first personal computer. They licensed the software to the manufacturer of the Altair, Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS), and formed Microsoft (originally Micro-soft) to develop versions of BASIC for other computer companies. Gates decided to drop out of Harvard in his junior year to devote his time to Microsoft. In 1980 Microsoft closed a pivotal deal with International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) to provide the operating system for the IBM PC personal computer. As part of the deal, Microsoft retained the right to license the operating system to other companies.
The success of the IBM PC made the operating system, MS-DOS, an industry standard. Microsoft’s revenues skyrocketed as other computer makers licensed MS-DOS and demand for personal computers surged. In 1986 Microsoft offered its stock to the public; by 1987 rapid appreciation of the stock had made Gates, 31, the youngest ever self-made billionaire. In the 1990s, as Microsoft’s Windows operating system and Office application software achieved worldwide market dominance, Gates amassed a fortune worth tens of billions of dollars. Alongside his successes, however, Gates was accused of using his company’s power to stifle competition. In 2000 a federal judge found Microsoft guilty of violating antitrust laws and ordered it split into two companies. An appeals court overturned the breakup order in 2001 but upheld the judge's ruling that Microsoft had abused its power to protect its Windows monopoly. In November 2001 Microsoft reached a settlement with the U.S. Justice Department and nine states, and a year later, the settlement was upheld by a federal district court judge. (For more information on the history of Microsoft, see Microsoft Corporation.)
Gates has made personal investments in other high-technology companies. He sits on the board of one biotechnology company and has invested in a number of others. In 1989 he founded Corbis Corporation, which now owns the largest collection of digital images in the world.
In the late 1990s Gates became more involved in philanthropy. With his wife he established the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, which, ranked by assets, quickly became the largest foundation in the world. Gates has also authored two books: The Road Ahead (1995; revised, 1996), which details his vision of technology’s role in society, and Business @ the Speed of Thought (1999), which discusses the role technology can play in running a business.
In 1998 Gates appointed an executive vice president of Microsoft, Steve Ballmer, to the position of president, but Gates continued to serve as Microsoft’s chairman and chief executive officer (CEO). In 2000 Gates transferred the title of CEO to Ballmer. While remaining chairman, Gates also took on the title of chief software architect to focus on the development of new products and technologies.
In June 2006 Gates announced that he would begin transitioning from a full-time role at Microsoft to a full-time role at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. He relinquished his title of chief software architect to Ray Ozzie, a veteran leader in computer technology and creator of Lotus Notes. Gates planned to remain chairman of Microsoft and to continue as its largest shareholder, but he said that by July 2008 he would have only a part-time role at the company he cofounded.
Taken from :
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Dalton, John
Dalton, John
Dalton, John (b. Sept. 6, 1766, Eaglesfield, Cumberland. Eng.- d. July 27, 1844, Manchester), British chemist and physicist who developed the atomic theory of matter and hence is known as one of the fathers of modern physical science.
Dalton was the son of a Quaker weaver. When only 12 he took charge of a Quaker school in Cumberland and two years later taught with his brother at a school in Kendal, where he was to remain for 12 years. He then became a teacher of mathematics and natural philosophy at New College in Manchester, a college established by the Presbyterians to give a first-class education to both layman and candidates for the ministry, the doors of Cambridge and Oxford being open at that time only to members of the Church of England. He resigned this position in 1800 to become secretary of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society and served as a public and private teacher of mathematics and chemistry. In 1817 he became president of the Philosophical Society, an honorary office that he held until his death
In the early days of his teaching, Dalton's way of life was influenced by a wealthy Quaker, a capable meteorologist and instrument maker, who interested him in the problems of mathematics and meteorology. His first scientific work, which he began in 1787 and continued until the end of his life, was to keep a diary - which was ultimately to contain 200,000 entries - of meteorological observations recording the changeable climate of the lake district in which he lived. In 1793 Dalton published Meteorological Observations and Essays. He then became interested in preparing collections of botanical and insect species. Stimulated by a spectacular aurora display in 1788, he began observations about aurora phenomena - luminous, sometimes colored displays in the sky caused by electrical disturbances in the atmosphere. His writings on the aurora borealis reveal independent thinking unhampered by the conclusions of others. As Dalton himself notes, "Having been in my progress so often misled by taking for granted the results of others, I have determined to write as little as possible but what I can attest by my own experience." In his work on the aurora he concluded that some relationship must exist between the aurora beams and the Earth's magnetism: "Now, from the conclusions in the preceding sections, we are under the necessity of considering the beams of the aurora borealis of a ferruginous (iron-like) nature, because nothing else is known to be magnetic, and consequently, that there exists in the higher regions of the atmosphere an elastic fluid partaking of the properties of iron, or rather of magnetic steel, and that this fluid, doubtless from its magnetic property, assumes the form of cylindric beams."
Some of his studies in meteorology led him to conclusions about the origin of trade winds involving the Earth's rotation and variation in temperature - unaware, perhaps, that this theory had already been proposed in 1735 by George Hadley. These are only some of the subjects on which he wrote essays that he read before the Philosophical Society: others included such topics as the barometer, thermometer, hygrometer, rainfall, the formation
1
of clouds, evaporation and distribution and character of atmospheric moisture, including the concept of the dew point. He was the first to confirm the theory that rain is caused not by any alteration in atmospheric pressure but by a diminution of temperature. In his studies with water he determined the point of the maximum density of water to be 42.5° F (later shown to be 39.16° F. Along with his other researches he also became interested in color blindness, a condition that he and his brother shared. The results of this work were published in an essay, "Extraordinary Facts Relating to the Vision of Colors" (1794), in which he postulated that deficiency in color perception was caused by discoloration of the liquid medium of the eyeball. Although Dalton's theory lost credence in his own lifetime, the meticulous, systematic nature of his research was so broadly recognized that Daltonism became a common term for color blindness.
An indefatigable investigator or researcher, Dalton had an unusual talent for formulating a theory from a variety of data. The mental capacity of the man is illustrated by his major work that was to begin at the turn of the century - his work in chemistry. Although he taught chemistry for six years at New College, he had no experience in chemical research. He embarked on this study with the same intuitiveness, independence of mind, dedication, and genius for creative synthesis of a theory from the available facts that he had demonstrated in his other work. His early studies on gases led to development of the law of partial pressures (known as Dalton's law; q.v.), which states that the total pressure of a mixture of gases equals the sum of the pressures of the gases in the mixture, each gas acting independently. These experiments also resulted in his theory according to which gas expands as it rises in temperature (the so-called Charles's law, which should really be credited to Dalton). On the strength of the data gained in these studies he devised other experiments that proved the solubility of gases in water and the rate of diffusion of gases. His analysis of the atmosphere showed it to be constant in com-position to 15,000 feet. He devised a system of chemical symbols and, having ascertained the relative weights of atoms (particles of matter), in 1803 arranged them into a table. In addition, he formulated the theory that a chemical combination of different elements occurs in simple numerical ratios by weight, which led to the development of the laws of definite and multiple proportions. Dalton discovered butylene and determined the composition of ether, finding its correct formula. Finally, he developed his masterpiece of synthesis - the atomic theory, the thesis that all elements are composed of tiny, indestructible particles called atoms that are all alike and have the same atomic weight.
Dalton's studies and writings, many included in his New System of Chemical Philosophy (part I, 1808; part II, 1810), cast light on the man. Dedicated to scientific research, independent in his approach, often diffident in seeking help in scientific papers that would aid him - or misguide him, as he often thought - he was a genius in synthesizing facts and ideas. Almost a recluse, with few friends, and unmarried, he was deeply dedicated to a search for the answer to scientific problems. His homemade equipment was crude, and his data were not usually exact, but they were good enough to give his alert and creative mind clues to the probable answer. Dalton remained a man of simple wants and uniform habits, keeping his dress and manners consistent with his Quaker faith.
2
Dalton's record keeping, although remarkable for quantity, often lacked exactness in dating, probably because he revised his manuscripts as secretary of the Philosophical Society between the time of the oral presentation and the publication. The exact date of some of his work, especially the atomic theory, is still in doubt because of this opportunity for revision. His documents were destroyed during the bombings of England in World War II. A fellow of the Royal Society, from whom he received the Gold Medal in 1826, and a corresponding member of the French Academy of Sciences, John Dalton was also cofounder of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. At his death more than 40,000 people came to Manchester to pay their final respects. (A.B.Ga.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. H.E. Roscoe, John Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry (1895), the most authoritative biography, and with A. Harden. A New View of the Origin of Dalton's Atomic Theory (1896), original material on Dalton's research: D.S.L. Cardwell (ed.), John Dalton and the Progress of Science (1968); J.B. Conant and L.K. Nash (eds.), Harvard Case Histories in Experimental Science, vol. 1 (1957), probably the most critical analysis of Dalton's work; Frank Greenaway. John Dalton and the Atom (1966).
3
Dalton, John (b. Sept. 6, 1766, Eaglesfield, Cumberland. Eng.- d. July 27, 1844, Manchester), British chemist and physicist who developed the atomic theory of matter and hence is known as one of the fathers of modern physical science.
Dalton was the son of a Quaker weaver. When only 12 he took charge of a Quaker school in Cumberland and two years later taught with his brother at a school in Kendal, where he was to remain for 12 years. He then became a teacher of mathematics and natural philosophy at New College in Manchester, a college established by the Presbyterians to give a first-class education to both layman and candidates for the ministry, the doors of Cambridge and Oxford being open at that time only to members of the Church of England. He resigned this position in 1800 to become secretary of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society and served as a public and private teacher of mathematics and chemistry. In 1817 he became president of the Philosophical Society, an honorary office that he held until his death
In the early days of his teaching, Dalton's way of life was influenced by a wealthy Quaker, a capable meteorologist and instrument maker, who interested him in the problems of mathematics and meteorology. His first scientific work, which he began in 1787 and continued until the end of his life, was to keep a diary - which was ultimately to contain 200,000 entries - of meteorological observations recording the changeable climate of the lake district in which he lived. In 1793 Dalton published Meteorological Observations and Essays. He then became interested in preparing collections of botanical and insect species. Stimulated by a spectacular aurora display in 1788, he began observations about aurora phenomena - luminous, sometimes colored displays in the sky caused by electrical disturbances in the atmosphere. His writings on the aurora borealis reveal independent thinking unhampered by the conclusions of others. As Dalton himself notes, "Having been in my progress so often misled by taking for granted the results of others, I have determined to write as little as possible but what I can attest by my own experience." In his work on the aurora he concluded that some relationship must exist between the aurora beams and the Earth's magnetism: "Now, from the conclusions in the preceding sections, we are under the necessity of considering the beams of the aurora borealis of a ferruginous (iron-like) nature, because nothing else is known to be magnetic, and consequently, that there exists in the higher regions of the atmosphere an elastic fluid partaking of the properties of iron, or rather of magnetic steel, and that this fluid, doubtless from its magnetic property, assumes the form of cylindric beams."
Some of his studies in meteorology led him to conclusions about the origin of trade winds involving the Earth's rotation and variation in temperature - unaware, perhaps, that this theory had already been proposed in 1735 by George Hadley. These are only some of the subjects on which he wrote essays that he read before the Philosophical Society: others included such topics as the barometer, thermometer, hygrometer, rainfall, the formation
1
of clouds, evaporation and distribution and character of atmospheric moisture, including the concept of the dew point. He was the first to confirm the theory that rain is caused not by any alteration in atmospheric pressure but by a diminution of temperature. In his studies with water he determined the point of the maximum density of water to be 42.5° F (later shown to be 39.16° F. Along with his other researches he also became interested in color blindness, a condition that he and his brother shared. The results of this work were published in an essay, "Extraordinary Facts Relating to the Vision of Colors" (1794), in which he postulated that deficiency in color perception was caused by discoloration of the liquid medium of the eyeball. Although Dalton's theory lost credence in his own lifetime, the meticulous, systematic nature of his research was so broadly recognized that Daltonism became a common term for color blindness.
An indefatigable investigator or researcher, Dalton had an unusual talent for formulating a theory from a variety of data. The mental capacity of the man is illustrated by his major work that was to begin at the turn of the century - his work in chemistry. Although he taught chemistry for six years at New College, he had no experience in chemical research. He embarked on this study with the same intuitiveness, independence of mind, dedication, and genius for creative synthesis of a theory from the available facts that he had demonstrated in his other work. His early studies on gases led to development of the law of partial pressures (known as Dalton's law; q.v.), which states that the total pressure of a mixture of gases equals the sum of the pressures of the gases in the mixture, each gas acting independently. These experiments also resulted in his theory according to which gas expands as it rises in temperature (the so-called Charles's law, which should really be credited to Dalton). On the strength of the data gained in these studies he devised other experiments that proved the solubility of gases in water and the rate of diffusion of gases. His analysis of the atmosphere showed it to be constant in com-position to 15,000 feet. He devised a system of chemical symbols and, having ascertained the relative weights of atoms (particles of matter), in 1803 arranged them into a table. In addition, he formulated the theory that a chemical combination of different elements occurs in simple numerical ratios by weight, which led to the development of the laws of definite and multiple proportions. Dalton discovered butylene and determined the composition of ether, finding its correct formula. Finally, he developed his masterpiece of synthesis - the atomic theory, the thesis that all elements are composed of tiny, indestructible particles called atoms that are all alike and have the same atomic weight.
Dalton's studies and writings, many included in his New System of Chemical Philosophy (part I, 1808; part II, 1810), cast light on the man. Dedicated to scientific research, independent in his approach, often diffident in seeking help in scientific papers that would aid him - or misguide him, as he often thought - he was a genius in synthesizing facts and ideas. Almost a recluse, with few friends, and unmarried, he was deeply dedicated to a search for the answer to scientific problems. His homemade equipment was crude, and his data were not usually exact, but they were good enough to give his alert and creative mind clues to the probable answer. Dalton remained a man of simple wants and uniform habits, keeping his dress and manners consistent with his Quaker faith.
2
Dalton's record keeping, although remarkable for quantity, often lacked exactness in dating, probably because he revised his manuscripts as secretary of the Philosophical Society between the time of the oral presentation and the publication. The exact date of some of his work, especially the atomic theory, is still in doubt because of this opportunity for revision. His documents were destroyed during the bombings of England in World War II. A fellow of the Royal Society, from whom he received the Gold Medal in 1826, and a corresponding member of the French Academy of Sciences, John Dalton was also cofounder of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. At his death more than 40,000 people came to Manchester to pay their final respects. (A.B.Ga.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. H.E. Roscoe, John Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry (1895), the most authoritative biography, and with A. Harden. A New View of the Origin of Dalton's Atomic Theory (1896), original material on Dalton's research: D.S.L. Cardwell (ed.), John Dalton and the Progress of Science (1968); J.B. Conant and L.K. Nash (eds.), Harvard Case Histories in Experimental Science, vol. 1 (1957), probably the most critical analysis of Dalton's work; Frank Greenaway. John Dalton and the Atom (1966).
3
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